Works hours and GBA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Works hours and GBA - Essay Example Additionally, the application of quantitative method ensures that the data collected is valid and reliable, since it entails the collection of primary data from the participants directly, using tools such as interviews and questionnaires. Through the application of a quantitative method of study, any subjectivity is eliminated, as the findings, recommendations and the conclusions are based on the data collected, evaluated and analyzed. This further serves to increase on the validity, accuracy and reliability of such results and information, as generated by the method. A great advantage associated with quantitative method of study is the fact that the researcher does not have to prepare strictly a design in advance, as the method unfolds in a more natural manner, making it easy for use by even individuals who have no prior experience in research (Alex, 61). The choice of the topic is based on the notion held by many people that if a student engages in work while still studying, it is likely to negatively affect his academic performance, since work is tiresome and exhaustive. While this could be one perspective, there could be many other advantages associated with students involving in work, while still undertaking their studies. For example, it can be easily observed that work provides a student with an alternative channel to break the monotony of class work, through an indulgence in different activities that are not of an academic nature. Therefore, this topic is a vital area of study, in that, the findings of the study will go a long way in making it well understood as to what is the relationship between work hours and GPA among graduate students. Further, the conclusion and recommendations reached by the study will serve to enlighten the academic fraternity on the advantages of students working while still studying. This way, it wil l help students make

LAW ADVICE TO SWEETTORQUE COMPANY LTD Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

LAW ADVICE TO SWEETTORQUE COMPANY LTD - Essay Example In a contract, there has to be the master of the offer who is the person who comes with the idea of contract and offers it to the other party in a bid to reach an agreement. The master of the offer also stipulates the time needed for the acceptance of the offer to the other parties. If a contract has not been reached by the given time of acceptance, the contract is said to be void or more time is given for both of the parties to go through with it. There are several methods of accepting an offer; the offeror (master of the offer) can limit the methods whereby he specifies a given amount of time usually seven days. If the offeror does not specify the amount of time for acceptance, then any reasonable time is valid for the offer to ace. In such a circumstance, the reasonable time depends on the type of offer. The mailbox rule states that a contract is deemed viable only after acceptance of the terms by all parties and the acceptance has been posted. However, it applies even if an accep tance has not been reached by the parties. In such a case, it becomes invalid if one of the parties misappropriates or misaddresses the acceptance. It also applies if, the offeree is notified of a rejection by the offeror, but they have already mailed the acceptance letter and received. An offer for acceptance can be terminated under several conditions. This includes through an act of a court order, if the offeree lets the offer lapse out of time, in the course of the death of one or both of the parties in the contract, by another more plausible offer, and lastly by revocation by both parties. A counter offer is defined as alterations of the key points of the agreement hence the offer... According to the research findings contract law is concerned with promises which are enforceable and are summed up as agreements which must be kept. There are three crucial elements in contract creation in the jurisdictions of common law. These are highlighted as consideration, acceptance and offer, and the want to come up with legal relations. A legally binding offer, for instance, is in reference to the one which was offered by the company Carbolic Smoke Ball when it came up with a wonder drug which was supposed to cure people who had flu. It promised that if the drug would not work, the affected individuals would be paid 100 Euros. Fearing bankruptcy, the company said that the advert was not meant to be serious and that it was supposed to invite people to be treated for mere puff or gimmick. The court held that this was a solemn offer to a reasonable man. Consideration points out that all the parties involved in a contract, exchange valuable things. Presently, some law systems are abandoning this requirement and adopting estoppels. Estoppels’ is being used when under taking pre-contractual negotiations for creation of obligations. Consideration in jurisdictions of civil law, is it not a requirement for a contract to bind. Torts or civil wrongs, sometimes depicts, occur when somebody breaches a duty to someone else, or infringes on the legal rights of a second party. For instance, when one accidentally hits somebody with a base ball, a tort would have been committed. Under negligence law, the offended party can claim compensation from the responsible party.

Studying The STOF Business Model Domains Information Technology Essay

Studying The STOF Business Model Domains Information Technology Essay STOF Model: This framework for business model focuses on customer value creation, the arrangements required from the organisational, financial and technological point of view, for creating a new service. These four dimensions address how value is delivered to the customer and similarly how the service provider can gain value from the service offered. The four dimension of the framework are service domain, technology domain, organisational domain and finance domain. In the following sections, these dimensions will be explored in detail. STOF Business Model Domains Since it is essential that the service offered by the firm should meet the demands of the customer, the new service definition is used as the central reference for all other domains. In customers viewpoint the technology is an enabler of the service, from the firms perspective it is the driver. Organisational domain describes how the resources in the firm will made available and used. Financial domain, stress on the pricing model, investment and other cost based risks involved in providing the service. Service Domain: Critical Success Factor and Critical Design Issues for Customer Value Chapter 3: A successful business model should balance the value created for the customer to that for the service provider. To achieve this there should a balance between the different domains of the business model. A critical design issue is variable which is of importance for the feasibility and sustainability of the business model. Understanding of critical design issues (CDI) and its linkages is critical for designing balanced business model. Service domain requirements guide the choice of technology to be used for the service delivery. Furthermore, it affects the organisational and financial domain. Critical Design Issues in Designing Business Model For each business model domain, we identify the respective CDIs. The identification of different CDIs is based on the literature review. In case of service domain the CDIs are target customers, value creating elements and customer retention. Target customers: Service requirements and the customer need are different for each target group. The target group definition, whether it is B2C or B2B is necessary. And it is therefore fundamental to have a clear segmentation of the customers to address respective value proposition. Value creating elements: To provide a compelling value proposition to the targeted customers, factors like relevance, ease of accessibility, accuracy, quality and trust are critical. It is therefore, the core service offering as well as support service being offered to the customer. Branding (removed in the diagram) : To get a better recognition for the new service , brand image is essential. It can also increase the trust and awareness of the service being offered. Customer Retention: It defines the ways to keep the customer loyal and satisfied. It is also need to develop recurrent use of the service by the customer. Critical design issues for Technology domain: Factors like security, integration of the existing system and accessibility are key design criteria for the technology domain. Security: The way information is stored in the technical architecture and how the access is granted to the customer is essential to avoid security breaches. The trade off between ease of accessibility and data privacy should be addressed to reduce the risk of improper use of the services. Quality of Service: The ability to provide different priority to maintain a certain level of performance based on the users, context and importance. The incurred cost in the technological infrastructure should be balanced with that of the quality of service. It can also be argued that the technological architecture or infrastructure influences the technical functionality, which in turn affects the customers perceived value of the service. System Integration: The extent to which the new service offering can be integrated with that of the existing ones determines the adaptation of the service. Cost and flexibility of the new technology affects the system integration. In the case of ICT , firms with open standards bring down the level of integration required in the technical side. Accessibility: There two factors which affect the accessibility of a service by the customer, first preference of service platforms and second the architecture. If there is a closed or controlled environment, it can make way to a restricted access to a particular group of customers. This also increases the security at technology level. Critical Design Issue at Organisational Domain: Partner Selection: This design criterion is based on the strategic interest that the firm has, based on it suitable partners can be chosen. It is also vital, to get hold of the required resources and capabilities by the firm. Openness of Network: It is the extent to which new business can link to the value network. There can be two scenarios, first a closed network and second an open network. The closed network is mostly used to create higher quality of service and new partners are chosen by certain set of rules. Open network, gives an opportunity to deliver services to a wider audience than the closed network. Network Governance: Establishment of set rules by which the partner businesses should operate and can be monitored. This is usually done by the most dominant actor in the value network. Access to the end-users is the key determinant of an actors dominant role in the collaboration. Network Complexity : The number of relationships that has to be maintained with other businesses in providing the services act as the determinant of the network complexity. If the complexity is reduced , or in other words, less number relations increases the security and quality of service. Critical Design Issue in the Finance Domain: Pricing: Pricing of the service plays an critical role in the service adaptation and its use. The perceived value by the customer should be greater than or at least equal to the delivered value by the service provider. The pricing strategy should address whether the firm is aiming for maximising the market share or maximising the profitability from delivering the service. Risk and Investment: The uncertainty about return on investment is the fundamental risk involved in developing and delivering a new service to the market. A division of investment and risk among the actors can reduce the degree of impact to the actors involved. Cost and Revenue: The division of cost and revenue between the businesses is not the same in all cases, it differ from case to case. For instance, the service provider can share the revenue with the other actors in the service delivery or it can be based on the subscription fee. The revenue sharing is based on the underlying business logic either value based or on cost basis. The division of cost and revenue depends on the division of risk and investment also. The CDIs play a significant role in the process of creating value to the customer as well as to the service provider therefore it act as the starting point. The next step is the identification of Critical Success Factors (CSFs). A minimum group of areas in which satisfactory outcome is required to make certain that the business model generates value for both the service provider and to the customer is called the Critical Success Factor(Rockart and Bullen ,1981). Then the linkage between CDI and CSF , will aid for generating a feasible business model. Critical Success Factor and Critical Design Issues for Network Value Critical Success Factors (CSF) For creating value to the customer : Compelling value proposition: It is related to value creating element CDIs in the service domain and it is a critical criterion for creating value to the customer. Value proposition is the overall benefits that are delivered to the customer by the service provider. Bouwan et al (2008) argues that the value proposition should be based on the customer needs and requirements and not to be based on the technological possibilities. Customers perspective of value also depends on the pricing (CDI) of the service. Similarly, Kotler (2000) points out that brand (CDI) influences the customer perspective of value proposition. Defined target customer: The CDI targeting is related to this CSF. Defined target customer will help the firm to focus on the targeted customers, as the customer needs are different for different customer group. The assumed customer needs by the service provider can be nullified by segmenting the customer base (Kotler, 2000). Accessibility CDI of technology domain also affects this CSF. Customer Retention: Customised or personalised service delivery to the customers will help retain the customer, mainly influenced by customer loyalty and customer experience. The unconstructive occurrence in service can affect the experience and frustrate the customer(Strauss, Schmidt, Schoeler, 2005). Quality of Service: Grà ¶nroos, 1994 suggests that the quality of service output and service process are equally important. CDIs from technology domain are closely related to QoS. CDIs in the technology domain demands an adequate level of quality, since the service being delivered is technology based. Security and system integration To summarize a high score in these CSFs will grantee that the service being provided will meet the customer expectations and create value to the customer. CSF for creating value to the network: The actors in the value network will cooperate for generating value on mutual interest and also compete for value on individual interest (Brandenburg Nalebuff, 1996). Another framework, Porters five forces model stress on competition between the actors (Porter, 1980). For creating value in the network, balance between financial and organisational domain is critical, mover over it should be acceptable by the collaborating actors. Profitability: There should be a acceptable profit for the firms, according to the division of cost and revenue (CDI). Other domain issues like customer group and pricing will affect the profitability. Risk: An agreeable division of risk among the participating actors should result from the division of investment CDI. Since, there is a high uncertainty of service acceptance and due to the investment in IT infrastructure. Network Strategy: This CSF is required to effectively manage the different relation in the value network, from the organisation domain perspective. Division of roles and Network Governance CDIs is directly related to the network strategy. Partner selection and network complexity is also interlinked with this CSF. To summarise a high score on these CSFs will create benefit for the firms that are involved in the service. Organisational CDIs help in allocation resources and capabilities, similarly the CDIs in finance domain is instrumental in directing to a profitable service.

S.W.O.T. Analysis of Boeing Corp. Essay -- SWOT Analysis

The objective of this paper is to analyze and discuss some of the Boeing Company's business decisions using their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats, also known as an S.W.O.T. analysis which is defined as, "a planning tool used to analyze an organization's strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. (Nickels, McHugh, McHugh, page 216)". This is a very powerful tool usable by any business that is just starting out, going through a change in direction, or in the process of a major merger. The SWOT analysis consists of a few simple steps which can provide valuable insight for direction and decision making. This paper will use The Boeing Company as an example of SWOT analysis application. The Boeing Company originally started out as the Pacific Aero Products Co., which was founded on July 15, 1916. The name was changed about a year later to The Boeing Airplane Company. The Boeing Company stayed relatively small until World War I when they were selected by Navy officials to produce an order for 50 model C's planes for the war efforts. The company continued to prosper and by the late 1950s, Boeing President William Allen knew that the company had the scientists, the experience and the facilities to lead the company into uncharted territories. He was right, Boeing has emerged as the leading aerospace company in the world today. The SWOT process will start by examining the internal strengths of the Boeing Company of today. One of the most dominant strengths possessed by Boeing is its ability to follow the changes in a market that is continually changing. The type of products produced by The Boeing Company demands the use of state of the art technology while maintaining all the proper safe guards for sa... ...It is important to continually perform SWOT analysis and to stay nimble. Overall the Boeing Company has stayed strong in the aircraft field and with record profits for the past two years it looks like they are achieving their goals. Boeing has had to change their business direction over the past 100 years in order to stay a top of the aircraft industry. To maintain a good successful business they must have used a system similar to this SWOT analysis to see where Boeing needed to be to capitalize the market. Before Boeing decided that outsourcing was the way to go, a group of Boeing peers got around a table and weighed out the pros and cons. In their business analysis they saw a way to change one of their weaknesses, in-house work overload, into a potential strength. Major business decisions like this are much easier to commit too, with the use of a SWOT analysis.

A review of recent UK Serious Case Reviews relating to vulnerable adults Essay

Serious Case Reviews (SCRs) concerning vulnerable adults have been laid out to assess the manner in which experts and organizations operated jointly to protect a susceptible adult or have an effect after harm or demise of a susceptible adult in cases of interests to do with organization’s activities or operations. There lacks a national network in the UK for their collation and psychoanalysis (Manthorpe & Martineau, 2010). This review of recent SCRs in the United Kingdom employs three themes that encompass staff affiliations; family and professions; life history and chronology with the intention of extracting substance appropriate to social work strategy and performance. SCRs with respect to susceptible adults and questions carried out UK adult protection or defense boards at regional position after the occurrence of harm or demise had little or no scrutiny (Brown, 2009). This paper reflects on the role and influence of serious case reviews in safeguarding vulnerable adults. S uggestions on Serious Case Reviews are offered in line with the perspective of the recent review of the vulnerable adult protection in the UK that obtained demands for the operations of Serious Case Reviews to be more constant and for teachings obtained to be assessed and more broadly passed amid social employees, other experts, regulators, and stakeholders. During a period when the UK government declared policies for Serious Case Reviews for adults to shift to a legal foundation, this study focuses on their prospective as knowledge materials, but also on their role and impact. Information collection                      The results applied in this study shape a section of a larger research that constituted an analysis of some Serious Case Reviews implemented in the United Kingdom from the time of the emergence of In Safe Hands and No Secrets. Moreover, interviews through cell phones with some experts knowledgeable in such reviews, and study of some Serious Case Review reports played a significant role in this study (Manthorpe & Martineau, 2010). Complete reports of Serious Case Reviews are not easily accessible online or publicly and thus, in the aforementioned reviews, Safeguarding Adults Coordinators (earlier referred to as Adult Protection Coordinators) were called forth to provide Serious Case Review reports that their Board members had earlier commissioned. The Serious Case Review reports differed in volume from 8 to 48 pages. In this study, the reports were reviewed in terms of: †  Contemplations on Serious Case Reviews; †  Methodology or progression; †  Outlay; †  Rationale; †  Reexamination/action plan; †  Review workforce; †  Teachings/recommendations; †  Threshold of Serious Case Review (if this was particularly reflected on), the rationale behind a Serious Case Review being felt as suitable (Aylett, 2009); †  Timescale; †  Type of Abuse (encompassing also disregard) using the groups delineated in No Secrets; †  Underlying principle for Serious Case Review; information concerning the victims, averred abusers and situations (Aylett, 2008). Because this review focused on learning if the reports clearly handled a number of these aspects thus permitting for assessment of the intelligibility and rigidity of the practice, this review applied full reports. Moreover, there exists an appealing balance in a question involving the major narrative, defining the occurrence and its forerunners, and the bureaucratic nature of the proposals (Benbow, 2008). Findings                      The ages of the vulnerable people that were affected or died were reported in age groups while tribe was not reported to sustain strict anonymity. Attributable to the lack of lawful or other fortitudes in a lot of reports, this study refers to averred victims and averred abusers. Some of the articles applied in this research entailed death and proof of disregard or abuse (in case that such abandonment or abuse was evidently contributory to death or not). Other articles entailed assertions of abandonment or mistreatment occurring at the averred victim’s residence attributable to relatives or people given the responsibility of providing care (Cambridge & Parkes, 2006). The rest entailed claims of sexual indignation, abandonment, or abuse with harm nearly causing death, general institutional abandonment, or maltreatment that was caused by pitiable attention and healthcare practices. Purpose                      The reports employed were generally clear concerning the rationale of the Serious Case Review that had been carried out, focusing on viewing this as a way to encourage multi-organization operation and lesson knowledge. This, from a report regarding the demise of a woman aged over 90 years after clearly obstreperous behavior of a relative in the countenance of suggestion that the woman ought to be admitted in a health care facility, is practically distinctive. The reason behind this review is to safeguard susceptible people by concentrating on teachings obtained from the cases and giving suggestions with an intention of curbing similar calamity through intensifying and bettering multi-organization processes and deals. The people carrying out Serious Case Reviews excellently comprehend this form of conceptualization of rationale concerning the notion behind them (Cambridge, Beadle-Brown, Milne, Mansell, & Whelton, 2011). Some local authorities do not have Serious Case Review procedures where to base reviews but adhere to the Mental Capacity Act 2005 whose main objective is to offer a legal structure for conduct and judgment making in aid of adults that do not have the capability to make some choices by themselves. The purpose of this review is: To gain knowledge from experience To better future performance by operating on the learning To enhance multi-organization operation To review protection adults practices This purpose of this review is not concerning blame allotment. In case personal matters come about from any Serious Case Review, they ought to be administered by every organization in accordance with their normal practices. Threshold                      In cases where death has occurred in conjunction with proof or suspicion of abandonment or mistreatment, such cases ought to at all times lead to Serious Case Review. Where there at one time existed potentially acute injury because of possible maltreatment or abandonment and the instance or occurrence creates issues concerning the manner in which local services and experts have operated jointly, then a Serious Case Review ought to be regarded. Similar standards are relevant where mistreatment or abandonment has occurred, in an individual’s residence or care and healthcare setting, or where numerous abusers are probably engaged (Cambridge et al., 2011). In an instance that perhaps ended in death of an elderly woman, the details were identified as lying in the Safeguarding Adult Board’s description of significance on grounds of the severe nature of abandonment and disregard she had encountered. This encompassed occurrences of mistreatment, anyone that was severe enough to lead to a referral to adult protection care in the regional authority, but encountered collective abandonment. Nevertheless, it was outstandingly exceptional for the reports to regard the concern of threshold explicitly thus complicating the knowledge of the rationale for carrying out a Serious Case Review (Cambridge & Parkes, 2006). In simple terms, we fail to gain knowledge of the description of the seriousness being used for a Serious Case Review, or the person that has approved the Serious Case Review as having met its threshold (Cambridge & Parkes, 2006). Furthermore, one of the Serious Case Reviews reviewed, embarked on into an occurrence where demise or severe injury never happened, seemed to create some extremely helpful study for broad extents of organizations and recommends that a different threshold could be a system breakdown. The set back of this review was in the investigation and reporting on the conditions that brought about the letdown of care provision that led to the woman that had a learning disability being disregarded the entire night on a transport bus. Teaching and recommendations from Serious Case Reviews                      The progression of gaining knowledge, the main rationale of Serious Case Reviews, perpetually leads to recommendations. Most of the Serious Case Reviews that were reviewed recognized discrepancies in inter-organization communication, the precise nature of the discrepancy relying, obviously, on the conditions (Aylett, 2009). The reports segregate the poor affiliations involving, for instance, care personnel, police, caregivers (relatives or physicians), the hospital workforce, and the facilities of adult protection in the regional authority. Outstandingly, some of the reports state on a deficiency of intelligibility as to lead organization, a function the regional authority was anticipated to carry out under No Secrets and that studies recommend had been identified and decided. Devoid of the organizations having a clear depiction, the failure to examine appropriately the threats to susceptible adults or that at hand in a care setting turned out to be more comprehensible following this review. This was pooled with a need for insight concerning adult protection measures, affirming a requirement for training or knowledge amid social and medical care personnel. References Aylett, J. (2008). Learning the lessons in training from abuse inquiries – findings and recommendations. Journal of Adult Protection, 10(4), 7-11. Aylett, J. (2009). A model and strategy for multi-agency adult protection training in Kent and Medway. Journal of Adult Protection, 11(1), 13-20. Benbow, S. (2008). Failures in the system: our inability to learn from inquiries. Journal of Adult Protection, 10(3), 5-13. Brown, H. (2009). The process and function of serious case review. Journal of Adult Protection, 11(1), 38-50. Cambridge, P., & Parkes, T. (2006). The Tension between Mainstream Competence and Specialization in Adult Protection: An Evaluation of the Role of the Adult Protection Coordinator. British Journal of Social Work, 36(2), 299-321. Cambridge, P., Beadle-Brown, J., Milne, A., Mansell, J., & Whelton, B. (2011). Adult protection: The processes and outcomes of adult protection referrals in two English local authorities. Journal of Social Work, 11(3), 247-267. Manthorpe, J., & Martineau, S. (2010). Serious case reviews in adult safeguarding in England: an analysis of a sample of reports. British journal of social work, 41(2), 1-18. Source document

Should Physician-Assisted Suicide be Legal?

Most people in North America die what may be called a bad death. One study found that ‘More often than not, patients died in pain, their desires concerning treatment neglected, after spending 10 days or more in an intensive care unit’† (Horgan). The word euthanasia is the opposite of bad death in that its Greek origins of eu (good) and thanatos (death) have it meaning good death.   The media attention dedicated to Dr.   Jack Kevorkian, the â€Å"death doctor,† in the 1980s has given rise to some interesting questions and moral dilemmas concerning the right to die.   Ã‚  Jack Kevorkian made use of suicide machines, rigged contraptions that would deliver a death blow, to his patients that recommended them.Basically, euthanasia is the mercy killing of an individual who has a terminal illness and who might be in considerable pain or have no quality of life.   It can take two forms.   Passive Euthanasia is simply denying the patient lifesaving treatment s.   Examples of this can be the removal of feeding tubes or breathing tubes.   Active Euthanasia is, as the name implies, an active way to put a suffering individual to death.   It may include administering lethal doses of painkillers or toxins to the individual.   One definition of physician assisted suicide which combines both type of euthanasia and therefore has been dubbed ‘voluntary passive euthanasia (VPE) is â€Å"A physician supplies information and/or the means of committing suicide (e.g. a prescription for lethal dose of sleeping pills, or a supply of carbon monoxide gas) to a person, so that they can easily terminate their own life (Robinson). Recently morals and ethics have come into conflict over this issue.   Is the right to die inherent in each individual?   What role does dignity play?   Is the quality of life more important than the sanctity of life?The majority of people look to answer these questions from their own personal experiences.   T hose who have watched love ones die long and painful deaths will usually wish to avoid those ends themselves.   When death is imminent, suffering for a few extra days spent in pain or even unconscious or unaware of one’s surroundings seems a futile and even cruel punishment to inflict upon oneself or a loved one.   Others fear that the depression and pain experienced by the dying person are clouding their decision-making abilities. However, personal feelings are the least likely to be validated because everyone’s personal feelings and view differ.   Therefore, other levels of the moral and legal hierarchy must be considered.Many attempt to resolve this dilemma through religious avenues.   Religion as a basis for legal decisions is not uncommon.   Legally, the church and state must remain separate, but many exceptions have been made.   A moment of silence in school can be used for prayer.   Member of certain religious denominations may refuse medical treat ment such as vaccinations for their children.   Certain individuals are not required to swear on the Bible in court, and some religious groups are even allowed controlled and illegal substances for use in religious services.   Clearly precedence has been set for breaching or at least blurring, the line between legal and moral. Most devoutly religious individuals believe that taking the life of another is immoral under any circumstances.   They believe that only God can give and take life. Clearly they view physician-assisted suicide as murder.   Doctors who do so are playing God, which is considered a sin.From a medical standpoint, doctors are often in the middle of this debate. As physicians, they are extremely knowledgeable about the pain and suffering associated with terminal diseases and injuries.   They may feel personally saddened at this deterioration of a patient that they have come to know.   However, the doctors are bound by the Hippocratic Oath in which they h ave sworn â€Å"first, do no harm.†Ã‚   At this point, they possible feel conflicted between their professional duty and their personal feelings.Legally, taking one’s own life is suicide and taking another’s life is murder. Wikipedia defines murder as â€Å"the premeditated unlawful killing of one human being by another through any action intended to kill or cause grievous bodily harm† (Murder). This definition, doctors who take the life of a patient, even one who is suffering horrible and certain to die, is guilty of murder.Thus, the question of should physician-assisted suicide be legal is certainly complex.   Public opinion polls show that the international public is generally supportive of euthanasia.   According to a Gallup poll in 1997, 57% of people are in favor and 35% are opposed in the US.   In Canada, 76% are supportive with that number rising to 80% in Britain, 81% in Australia and 92% in the Netherlands (Reed, A12).The right to die is j ust one of the many choices that have come under the legislative domain.   Roe v. Wade gave the choice of abortion to women.   However, this right is now in jeopardy.   It seem that the US government is afraid to give choices about personal life decisions to the American public out of fear of religious backlash.   This has led to doctors fearing to provide this humanitarian aid out of fear of legal backlash in the form of lawsuits or even prosecution.Sue Rodriguez was the center of a high profile terminally ill case in Canada.   Suffering from ALS, she publicly challenged all opponents of the right to die with â€Å"Whose life is it, anyway.   Her doctor helped her commit suicide in the presence of a Canadian Member of Parliament. Neither was prosecuted (Robinson).   It is very hard to argue with the pleas of a dying woman in this situation.   However, the recent case of Terry Schiavo, in which the family had to make an interpretation of an incapacitated womanâ€⠄¢s desires, is less cut and dried.   Human greed and hatred can interfere with just decision making and this case clearly divided America.One way to ensure that an individual’s own personal wishes are carried out is through a living will.   In 1990, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that every individual has the constitutional right to control his or her own medical treatment and that doctors, nurses or any professional staff must follow ‘clear and convincing evidence' of the ill individual’s wishes.   The personal position of the doctors and the family cannot override a living will (Robinson).Unfortunately, 67% of people do not have a living will (Robinson).   In absence of such a document, society is forced to the original question:   Should physician assisted suicide be legal?   Yes, it should.   First of all, the majority of the public believes that it is the right and just thing to do.   Next, legal precedents of the importance of choice in simil ar situations such as abortion have already been established in court.   Third, even if patients are depressed or in pain, they are still dying. The United States Justice system validates the choices of depressed individuals every day.   If a depressed person makes a choice to commit a crime, that choice is validated by an arrest, conviction and possible prison term. Prolonging their life under these circumstances is cruel and unusual punishment.   Doctors can choose as well.   Millions of people rely on doctor’s choices every day.The United States should not strip individual choice from its citizens. Citizens should be able to make the choice and then live (or, in this case, not live) by the consequences.   Physician assisted suicide should be legalized in the United States.   This way it can be documented and cases like Sue Rodriquez and Terry Schiavo will not have to dominate the media but can rest in the peace that they deserve.Works CitedHorgan, John. â€Å" Right to Die.† Scientific American. May 1996.Murder.   Wikipedia. Retrieved 19 July 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MurderReed, Christopher.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"Oregon Tackles Mercy Killing.† Globe and Mail.   June 27, 1997: A12.Robinson, B.A. Euthanasia and Physician Assisted Suicide.   Ontario Consultants on ReligiousTolerance.   January 19, 2006.   Retrieved 19 July 2006 fromhttp://www.religioustolerance.org/euthanas.htm

Jim Crow essays

Jim Crow essays The states of Tennessee and Louisiana had Jim Crow laws after the Civil War. Tennessee had twenty laws between the years 1866 and 1955. Louisiana on the other hand had 33 between the years 1868 and 1960. Tennessee and Louisiana both had Jim Crow laws however there were some similarities and differences. Tennessee Jim Crow law dealt with had education, railroad, streetcar, miscengerenation, and accommodation statue. The laws mainly focused on education and public transportation. The education laws required separate school for black and white children but in 1869 a law was passed that barred segragation based on race from attending the University of Tennessee but blacks and whites was separated. The railroad companies were required to furnish separate cars for black passengers who pay first-class rates. In 1891the railroad companies would provide separate but equal accommodations for blacks and whites. There were also laws for miscegenation. Black and whites were not able to get married and if they did marry they were put in prison. Every place Louisiana on the other hand prohibited separation of schools based on race on up till 1954. After the Brown decision they had to operate separate schools for black and white children. Public transportation was open for anyone to ride there were no law stating that blacks couldnt ride. However in 1928 everyone could still ride but the carriers had to provide separate but equal accommodations. Like Tennessee there were law against intermarriage between blacks and whites and against blacks and Indians. Louisiana also had some laws that Tennessee had brought into law later. Louisiana called for segregation in prisons and health care institutions. They also made employers to create separate bathrooms, dining halls, and eating and drinking utensils for black and whites. Louisiana from 1868 to 1914 didnt have any segregation. The only thing that was outlawed was miscegenati...

Windows Installation And Backup Work Order Example

Windows Installation And Backup Work Order Example Windows Installation And Backup Work Order – Coursework Example Installing a New Operating System Installing a New Operating System The technological outlook of the society is changing rapidly and therefore, the organizations are supposed to keep up with the change or die out due to extinction (Mohr, 1971). The idea of investing in new computer hardware leads towards acquiring of new software and operating system (Ettlie, 1982). But, nowadays the organizational focus is on buying out new operating systems in order to use the current hardware of the company more effectively and efficiently (Hulin & Roznowski, 1985). The re-installment procedure is believed to be painstakingly difficult (Brynjolfsson & Hitt, 2000) as it involves removal of previously used OS from all workstations and the installation of new one as soon as possible. The proposed plan should be executed on a long weekend so that the general practices of the organization should not be disrupted. Firstly, the staff should be guided to save their essential data and then, the technical personnel should store these data in a central server so that all of the individual workstations can be emptied when installing new system. Secondly, all of the data stored in the central server should be debugged via virus scanning and elimination program. Finally, after conducting the individual virus scans on the workstations all of them should be reprogrammed in order to use the new operating system. The work-order diagram is as follows: - The older version of Windows 2007 was used across the organization. But, the management found out the Windows 7 is more efficient and resilient to virus attacks and therefore, they made a decision to make a switch. Furthermore, the plan will work because it will not disturb the routine of the company and then, all of the data will be debugged and ultimately technical staff will have the opportunity to train other departments’ staff in using the new OS along the way. ReferencesBrynjolfsson, E., & Hitt, L. (2000). Beyond Computation: Inf ormation Technology, Organizational Transformation and Business Performance. The Journal of Economic Perspectives Vol 14 (4) , pp.23-48.Ettlie, J. (1982). Environmental uncertainty and organizational technology policy. Engineering Management, IEEE Transactions on Vol 29 (1) , pp.2 -10.Hulin, C., & Roznowski, M. (1985). Organizational technologies: Effects on organizations characteristics and individuals responses. Research in Organizational Behavior , pp.39-85.Mohr, L. (1971). Organizational Technology and Organizational Structure. Administrative Science Quarterly Vol 16 (4) , pp.444-459.

A Study On Barbie Global Market Marketing Essay

A Study On Barbie Global Market Marketing Essay International marketing is the performance of a company’s product and services to consumers in more than one nation to produce profit. It is one of the most vital elements of marketing functions to trade their company’s products or services internationally rather than locally. This brings more advantages and benefits the organization itself as well as the country. However, trying to trade internationally influences by many factors and cause difficulties. And it is the task of these companies to study these factors prior in order to initiate business or trade with other countries effectively. These factors include the culture, economic and political factors. This essay’s discussion base on the case study, â€Å"Barbie: The American Girl Goes Global.† â€Å"Barbie is worldwide brand name invented by Ruth Handler defining as a small scale anatomically improbable modelled plastic figure of a human being especially a child’s plaything and collectable dolls.† It is the brand name for Mattel Inc., the organization for producing these toys and dolls. Barbie effectively starts its operation and selling out of its products at the American Toy Fair in New York City in 1959. Since then, Barbie become popular and operate effectively due to its increasing sales and revenues thus earning high profit compare to other American toy markets. Therefore, Mattel Inc expands its marketing situation and trade internationally where Barbie is currently selling out in more than 150 countries. These include European countries, Middle East, India and Japan. Therefore, this writing will discuss how Mattel Inc. deals with different culture issues, economic environment and political factors in these different countries in trying to market its products, the American Barbie doll. Throughout the given case study, it was basically talk about how different culture affects Mattel in trying to sell Barbie in the above mentioned countries. â€Å"Culture i s the acquired knowledge that people use to interpret experience and generate social behaviour† (Keegan & Green 2003). Each country has its own culture values and different from one another. And because Barbie trade worldwide, Mattel tend to carefully study the culture environment in those countries and analyze culture issues arise. The cultural issues of these countries affected the selling of Barbie can be reflected from different things. These include the language use, the religion involves, the social behaviour and the traditional dress code of each country. However, some economic issues and political factors appear to influence its international trading. Barbie is a worldwide brand and they first entered the US market for selling their products because it was the place of founder. Since then, Ruth Handler realizes the importance of children then decides to produce Barbie to motivate her daughter’s dream of her future. These products were three dimensional adult fe male dolls using by children to play with and it was popular in America because they initiate with high amount of sales of total 351,000 dolls at $3 each for the first year on the market. This occurs because Mattel identify its target market such as the group of children up of 1 to 11 years old and they fully satisfy their needs for toys made of plastic and long lasting rather than the first available dolls were made of paper and cardboard.

Design and Implementation Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Design and Implementation - Assignment Example Design and Implementation Between-subjects design refers to such experimental designs where the participants are exposed to any one condition from among the various conditions. However in this case, a participant cannot be allowed to go for both the conditions. In other words, between-subjects design is used for measuring the effect of a particular thing on different groups, exposing one group to the particular condition and restricting the other group from being exposed in such condition. It never exposes the same subject to different conditions for studying the changes in the outcome. The statistical term for this method is nested design. This method can be applied in the process of measuring the effectiveness of the teaching aids used in modern times. In this experiment, the participants will be grouped randomly independent of their age, gender or educational status. Two groups will be formed namely group A and group B. Group A will go through a learning session where traditional methods like books, lectures and weekly tests will be included. The other group (Group B) will be exposed to audio-visual mediums, internet and group-discussion. After a month, both these groups would seat for an exam and the results will decide which teaching method is more effective. But it should always be noted, that factors like intelligence quotient (IQ), retention capability, slow learning, age etc. plays a major role in the outcome of the test. ... Provide an example of how you could use a nested design to conduct a study on a topic of interest to you. Answer Between-subjects design refers to such experimental designs where the participants are exposed to any one condition from among the various conditions. However in this case, a participant cannot be allowed to go for both the conditions. In other words, between-subjects design is used for measuring the effect of a particular thing on different groups, exposing one group to the particular condition and restricting the other group from being exposed in such condition. It never exposes the same subject to different conditions for studying the changes in the outcome. The statistical term for this method is nested design. This method can be applied in the process of measuring the effectiveness of the teaching aids used in modern times. In this experiment, the participants will be grouped randomly independent of their age, gender or educational status. Two groups will be formed na mely group A and group B. Group A will go through a learning session where traditional methods like books, lectures and weekly tests will be included. The other group (Group B) will be exposed to audio-visual mediums, internet and group-discussion. After a month, both these groups would seat for an exam and the results will decide which teaching method is more effective. But it should always be noted, that factors like intelligence quotient (IQ), retention capability, slow learning, age etc. plays a major role in the outcome of the test. Question 3 In your own words, describe the characteristics of a within-subjects (or, repeated measures; or, crossed) design. Provide an example of how you could us a

Price Discrimination -Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Price Discrimination -Economics - Essay Example The works of economics in various fields have been criticized for not being implementable in the real world and this has been one of the most serious failures of economists. However, there are still a number of theories which can be implemented in the real markets as they are in the books and work well in the human environment due to the fact that they have been developed over years after observing human nature and business functioning methods. This paper will be discussing the concept of price discrimination and how it can be used to benefit firms instead of the general notion that discounts and special fares for different target groups will lead to lower profit margins and losses. The paper is outlined in a continuous flow that will explain the basic three degrees of price discrimination with illustrations. After the theories have been discussed in detail, the practical examples will give the reader an idea of how the theory works in the actual environment which will be followed by a prompt conclusion. Though the term says it all, it is necessary to consider the mechanisms of demand and supply and the rubrics of price determination in a market where buyers and sellers have the natural tendency to bargain and ask for discounts if their purchases are above a standard quantity while sellers would love to settle for a lower price if buyers are willing to purchase more just because of the selling price being reduced. The definition of price discrimination is to "charge different buyers different prices for the same good, even though there is no difference in costs between customers" (Price Discrimination Notes, 2009). There are three degrees of price discrimination which form the complete function of this theory and while all can be practiced at the same time, it all is a matter of information flow in the system as to how long the practice can be sustained without forces acting towards price restoration (Case & Fair, 2004). This section will identify the three forms of price discrimination in theory clearly understating how it can still be profitable for firms to operate even though may be discriminating against prices. The above graph shows a typical demand-supply curve for a real market. With no price discrimination, the consumer surplus is the value the consumers received extra i.e. they did not pay for this value. However, the producer surplus represents the value of goods which the producer pocketed money for but actually never produced. The above demand and supply schedules are only possible because of the different willing-to-pay prices of different customers (Mankiw, 2002). This leads to some customers having to buy a product at a price which above which they valued the product while others have to pay an amount greater than the value they perceived for that product. Perfect Price Discrimination - First Degree of Price Discrimination The normal case of demand and supply match is twisted slightly by sellers in the first degree of price discrimination. Here the sellers discriminate "perfectly" amongst their consumers. This means that a consumer willing to pay $10 instead of the $5 market price will have no clue as to the fair market value of the product and will end up

Truman Capote Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Truman Capote - Research Paper Example I was obsessed by it†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (69). 2. Works, contributions to literature and Popularity Capote went to live with his mother and step father in New York in his mid teens because of this uprooting from a town to the city and change of atmosphere in general Capote faced a lot of hardships in settling down. Consequently he left school and took a job in The New Yorker Magazine and with in a few years the young flourishing writer caught the attention of Bennett Cerf who was a publisher. Capote’s short story Miriam got him a contract with Random House. From there his road to success and fame was easy and it also led him in to the heart of the elite and the higher social circles of New York. Another reason for this entry was that he had an open and friendly manner because of which he was always able to make friends easily. His acclaimed short novel Breakfast at Tiffany’s also takes inspiration from his experiences and the time he spent in the cream of these elite social circles. Moreover this particular novel was also made in a film which further shows the extent of Capote’s popularity. Capote always said in 1978, ‘I had to be successful, and I had to be successful early’ apparently the author was able to fulfill his dream to the dot. He is considered to be the pioneer who introduced a new genre in the field of literature i.e. the Nonfiction Novel. This new genre of literature deals with the depiction of character and stories that were inspired from and are related to or about the people surrounding the writer. Although Capote gained a lot of popularity amongst his fans for such a depiction of the elite society in his works however this also earned him hatred and condemnation from his friends and family as also stated, ‘Capote's natural talent for weaving truth with fiction and his unflinching descriptions of his friends soon led to his rapid descent in popularity in the social circles he had worked so hard to adoptâ€℠¢ (capotebio.com). Capote’s novel ‘In Cold Blood’ was his first and the most famous nonfiction novel. This novel is about the clutter murders in the Kansas state for this particular novel Capote did a lot of research and he interviewed a lot of people to retain the novel’s originality. His ability to befriend others easily was an additional help for his research because due to his friendly manner people always confided in him easily. This amalgamation of journalism and literature produced a fantastic piece of literature that was extremely liked by the readers and the critics in general. As Willis also states, ‘Capote said, â€Å"This book was an important event for me†¦I wanted to produce a journalistic novel, something on a large scale that would have the credibility of fact, the immediacy of film, the depth and freedom of prose, and the precision of poetry†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (94).However some of the critics also gave negative feedback as Krebs al so states, ‘The critic Kenneth Tynan took Mr. Capote to task for being too strictly a reporter and not making an effort to have the killers' lives spared. Although Capote was a recipient of mixed praise from the critics in his life he only wrote 13 volumes most of which were short novels. Some of the critics thought that he had talent although he did not put it to good use. Krebs also states, ‘his old friend John Malcolm Brinnin, he failed to join the ranks of the truly great American writers because he

The next generation air transportation system Research Paper

The next generation air transportation system - Research Paper Example The Next Generation 2010plan was developed with a plan to focus on theimprovement of the operations. In 2003 a Joint Planning and Development Office (JPDO) was developed to plan and coordinate the development of the system. Next Generation Air Transport System is majorly designed to relieve airspace congestion problems at high density airports (Rodrigues and Cusik). These airports are said to have a lot of flights taking place within 24 hours and human traffic is also high per year. Therefore FAA has rated them top in the list to receive this upgrading; an example is the New York Airport and Dallas Fort Worth International Airport. This system has been in demonstration in Delta Airlines and FedEx. Refining and improving satellite navigation through augmentation systems will assist pilots in all flight phases that are: taxing, to take-off, en-route flying and landing in all weather conditions, reaching the level of safety thatwill be required to cope with the continuous increase in the number of flights. It is an important development because flights could be for commercial purposes or leisure purposes within the same airspace thus the need to separate them. The old system provides navigation to pilots through the aid of equipment like Non Directional Beacon (NDB) which is a radio transmitter put on the ground at a known location from which the aircraft can track to or from, whereas VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) which is used to provide a more accurate directional information. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) providesdistance information to and from the facility. Lastly, there is Instrument Landing System (ILS) that provides lateral and vertical guidance to aircraft approaching landing. All these facilities had to be located in positions where they were accessible for maintenance and optimum navigation purposes. Currently in the old systemdomestic airspace is monitored by the radar and there are

Earthquake dangers and community preparedness Essay

Earthquake dangers and community preparedness - Essay Example Adapted from Geography: earthquakes, by BBC, 2012, Retrieved 26 November 2012 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/natural_hazards/earthquakes_rev1.shtml. Copyright 2012 by Author. Reprinted with permission. A shift in these plates results in vibrations in the crust of the earth, a phenomenon referred to as earthquake. Patel and Revi (2010) define earthquake as a sudden movement of the crust of the earth due to volcanic activity or release of stress accumulated along faults. The logarithmic Richter scale measures the magnitude of earthquakes. The greatest magnitude measured to date has been 9.5 for an earthquake that rocked Chile, causing tsunamis and killing about 1,655 people injuring 3,000 others (US Department of the Interior, 2012). Dangers of earthquake to humans and the environment Indeed, these shifts of the earth’s crust referred to as earthquakes impact on ecosystems and habitats. The United Nations Environmental Program (2004) gives an example of the 1976 Sichuan earthquake that led to the loss of the habitat for the giant bear panda. The tsunamis that result from earthquakes could kill fish and other sea life with consequent disturbance of their habitat. For example, the 1964 Alskan earthquake uplifted the floor of the sea by 33 feet leading to destruction of calcareous marine organisms. Earthquakes destroy plant life. It is feared that in Northern California, a place of convergence of three tectonic plates, the occurrence of an earthquake would cause a massive loss of Redwood trees (Patel & Revi, 2010). As humans seek to construct temporary shelters, reconstruct and meet their energy needs, they could cause deforestation thus ecosystem depletion (BBC, 2012). Similarly, other risks such as quarrying for reconstruction could further negatively impact on the ecosystem. Wildlife also gets affected either directly or indirectly because of earthquakes. Some of these environmental effects of earthquakes affect human health. The waste disposal and debris resulting from an earthquake could negatively impact the environment and human health. The affected would have to look for appropriate ways of disposing off such waste so as to rebuild their structures. The aftermath of the 2008 Sichuan China earthquake saw agricultural fields turned into dumps with building materials (BBC, 2012). Water sources also got contaminated with the dumps. Therefore, it would be critical to ape Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts which after the 194 earthquake disposed off the rubbles appropriately (Patel & Revi, 2010). This would be important in seeking to lower contamination of the environment and disease to humans. Other than diseases, earthquakes could cause fires which burn down the assets of people, setting them back economically. In addition, the short term looting in the event of an earthquake would have similar devastative effects. Landslides could bury families under rubbles, with some bodies not being retrieved even after the disaster. The cost of rebuilding also adds to people’s financial burdens. Preparedness towards earthquake dangers The Seattle Office of Management (2012) suggests various ways to prepare one for an earthquake as an individual. The organization proposes anchoring of appliances and tall furniture that could fall. Homes should have emergency supplies known to every family member. The members should also have the necessary numbers handy to be used in case of separation

Truman Capote Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Truman Capote - Research Paper Example I was obsessed by it†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (69). 2. Works, contributions to literature and Popularity Capote went to live with his mother and step father in New York in his mid teens because of this uprooting from a town to the city and change of atmosphere in general Capote faced a lot of hardships in settling down. Consequently he left school and took a job in The New Yorker Magazine and with in a few years the young flourishing writer caught the attention of Bennett Cerf who was a publisher. Capote’s short story Miriam got him a contract with Random House. From there his road to success and fame was easy and it also led him in to the heart of the elite and the higher social circles of New York. Another reason for this entry was that he had an open and friendly manner because of which he was always able to make friends easily. His acclaimed short novel Breakfast at Tiffany’s also takes inspiration from his experiences and the time he spent in the cream of these elite social circles. Moreover this particular novel was also made in a film which further shows the extent of Capote’s popularity. Capote always said in 1978, ‘I had to be successful, and I had to be successful early’ apparently the author was able to fulfill his dream to the dot. He is considered to be the pioneer who introduced a new genre in the field of literature i.e. the Nonfiction Novel. This new genre of literature deals with the depiction of character and stories that were inspired from and are related to or about the people surrounding the writer. Although Capote gained a lot of popularity amongst his fans for such a depiction of the elite society in his works however this also earned him hatred and condemnation from his friends and family as also stated, ‘Capote's natural talent for weaving truth with fiction and his unflinching descriptions of his friends soon led to his rapid descent in popularity in the social circles he had worked so hard to adoptâ€℠¢ (capotebio.com). Capote’s novel ‘In Cold Blood’ was his first and the most famous nonfiction novel. This novel is about the clutter murders in the Kansas state for this particular novel Capote did a lot of research and he interviewed a lot of people to retain the novel’s originality. His ability to befriend others easily was an additional help for his research because due to his friendly manner people always confided in him easily. This amalgamation of journalism and literature produced a fantastic piece of literature that was extremely liked by the readers and the critics in general. As Willis also states, ‘Capote said, â€Å"This book was an important event for me†¦I wanted to produce a journalistic novel, something on a large scale that would have the credibility of fact, the immediacy of film, the depth and freedom of prose, and the precision of poetry†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (94).However some of the critics also gave negative feedback as Krebs al so states, ‘The critic Kenneth Tynan took Mr. Capote to task for being too strictly a reporter and not making an effort to have the killers' lives spared. Although Capote was a recipient of mixed praise from the critics in his life he only wrote 13 volumes most of which were short novels. Some of the critics thought that he had talent although he did not put it to good use. Krebs also states, ‘his old friend John Malcolm Brinnin, he failed to join the ranks of the truly great American writers because he

Earthquake dangers and community preparedness Essay

Earthquake dangers and community preparedness - Essay Example Adapted from Geography: earthquakes, by BBC, 2012, Retrieved 26 November 2012 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/natural_hazards/earthquakes_rev1.shtml. Copyright 2012 by Author. Reprinted with permission. A shift in these plates results in vibrations in the crust of the earth, a phenomenon referred to as earthquake. Patel and Revi (2010) define earthquake as a sudden movement of the crust of the earth due to volcanic activity or release of stress accumulated along faults. The logarithmic Richter scale measures the magnitude of earthquakes. The greatest magnitude measured to date has been 9.5 for an earthquake that rocked Chile, causing tsunamis and killing about 1,655 people injuring 3,000 others (US Department of the Interior, 2012). Dangers of earthquake to humans and the environment Indeed, these shifts of the earth’s crust referred to as earthquakes impact on ecosystems and habitats. The United Nations Environmental Program (2004) gives an example of the 1976 Sichuan earthquake that led to the loss of the habitat for the giant bear panda. The tsunamis that result from earthquakes could kill fish and other sea life with consequent disturbance of their habitat. For example, the 1964 Alskan earthquake uplifted the floor of the sea by 33 feet leading to destruction of calcareous marine organisms. Earthquakes destroy plant life. It is feared that in Northern California, a place of convergence of three tectonic plates, the occurrence of an earthquake would cause a massive loss of Redwood trees (Patel & Revi, 2010). As humans seek to construct temporary shelters, reconstruct and meet their energy needs, they could cause deforestation thus ecosystem depletion (BBC, 2012). Similarly, other risks such as quarrying for reconstruction could further negatively impact on the ecosystem. Wildlife also gets affected either directly or indirectly because of earthquakes. Some of these environmental effects of earthquakes affect human health. The waste disposal and debris resulting from an earthquake could negatively impact the environment and human health. The affected would have to look for appropriate ways of disposing off such waste so as to rebuild their structures. The aftermath of the 2008 Sichuan China earthquake saw agricultural fields turned into dumps with building materials (BBC, 2012). Water sources also got contaminated with the dumps. Therefore, it would be critical to ape Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts which after the 194 earthquake disposed off the rubbles appropriately (Patel & Revi, 2010). This would be important in seeking to lower contamination of the environment and disease to humans. Other than diseases, earthquakes could cause fires which burn down the assets of people, setting them back economically. In addition, the short term looting in the event of an earthquake would have similar devastative effects. Landslides could bury families under rubbles, with some bodies not being retrieved even after the disaster. The cost of rebuilding also adds to people’s financial burdens. Preparedness towards earthquake dangers The Seattle Office of Management (2012) suggests various ways to prepare one for an earthquake as an individual. The organization proposes anchoring of appliances and tall furniture that could fall. Homes should have emergency supplies known to every family member. The members should also have the necessary numbers handy to be used in case of separation

Smoking and Lung Cancer Essay Example for Free

Smoking and Lung Cancer Essay What is lung cancer? Well, lung cancer is the leading cancer killer in both men and women in the United States. Lung cancer has greater mortality rates than the next three most common cancers combined (colon, breast and prostate). An estimated 157,300 Americans were expected to die from lung cancer in 2010, accounting for approximately 28 percent of all cancer deaths (American Lung Association). Lung cancer is very difficult to treat, depending on the size and stage in which the cancer is detected. The earlier the cancer is discovered, the better. For example, if the cancer is found earlier than later, more types of treatment can be administered to the patient. These treatments may vary from surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation. Although lung cancer is rarely cured completely, if detected and treated early, survival expectancy can increase substantially. Despite the difficulties of this deadly disease, the number of cases in which people have lung cancer is unnecessary, and can be greatly lowered. The risk of developing lung cancer can be reduced by 90% in people who quit smoking before the age of 35. Smoking is greatly related to lung cancer. Smoking, a main cause of small cell lung cancer, contributes to 80 percent and 90 percent of lung cancer deaths in women and men (American Lung Association). Men that smoke are 23 times more likely to develop lung cancer than men who don’t, and women who smoke are 13 times more likely to develop lung cancer than nonsmoking women. The lung cancer types found in people who smoke mostly differ from those in non-smokers. Small cell lung cancers, which account for approximately 20 percent of lung cancers, occur almost always in people who smoke or have smoked in the past. Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) is a disease in which cancer cells are found in the tissues of the lungs. Inside the chest, lungs take up much of the room inside and usually are a pair of cone-shaped organs. The characteristic of this type of cancer is that it grows mor e rapidly and is more likely to spread to other organs inside your body. Starting with any one of the larger breathing tubes, small cell lung cancer grows quickly and at the time of diagnosis attains larger size. Most common cause of lung cancer is cigarette smoking. Small cell lung cancer risk factors include smoking cigarettes, cigars, or pipes now or in the past, exposure to second hand smoke, and exposure to asbestos or radon. Non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLC) is the type found more commonly in non-smokers, but the majority of cases still  occur in people who have smoked in his or her lifetime. There is one broad general cause to lung cancer that is the Constant prolonged introduction and exposure of a variety of carcinogens into the lungs. A carcinogen is any ingredient that has the potential to cause cancer. One deadly carcinogen is radon gas. Exposure to radon is estimated to be the second leading cause of lung cancer, responsible for an estimated 15,000 to 22,000 lung cancer deaths every year (American Lung Association). Radon is a tasteless, colorless and odorless gas that is produced by decaying uranium and occurs naturally in soil and rocks. Lung cancer can also be caused by occupational exposures, including asbestos, uranium, and coke (an important fuel in the manufacture of iron in smelters, blast furnaces, and foundries). Amongst all of these factors that cause lung cancer, cigarette smoke, with its concoction of highly concentrated carcinogens, inhaled by both smokers and nonsmokers is the foremost cause of lung cancer. In addition to the causing of lung cancer, smoking puts a person in increased risk of the pancreas, kidney, bladder, esophagus, oral cavity, and larynx cancers. Since there is a great association between smoking and lung cancer, there is also an increased risk of developing other smoking related cancers. These types of cancers and lung cancer incidences depend initially on the overall lifetime exposure to cigarette smoke, the number of years a person has smoked cigarettes, and the age at which the individual was introduced into cigarette smoking. Now that we know the causes of lung cancer, let’s explore the contents of a cigarette. What are the ingredients and chemicals that are manufactured into cigarettes, have you ever wondered? There are approximately 600 ingredients in cigarettes (American Lung Association). When these ingredients are burned, they create more than 4,000 chemicals. At least 50 of these chemicals are known to cause cancer, and many are very poisonous. A lot of these chemicals are also found in many consumer products, but these products have warning labels on them. While the public is warned and advised about the danger of the poisons in these products, there is no such warning for the toxins in cigarettes. Here are a few of the chemicals in tobacco smoke, and other places they are found in: Acetone found in nail polish remover, Ammonia a common household cleaner, Methanol – a main component in rocket fuel, Butane – used in lighter fluid, and Carbon Monoxide – released in car exhaust fumes. That’s just a very short  list of extremely dangerous chemicals that are incorporated into cigarette smoke. It’s no surprise that the constant inhalation of these hazardous substances over time can result in a variety of serious health problems such as chronic bronchitis, emphysema, asthma, and even chronic diseases. It is critical and essential to know how smoking causes lung cancer because there is a great relationship between smoking and lung cancer. Your lungs air passages are lined with millions of tiny hairs called cilia. The cilia act like little brooms protecting the air tubes by sweeping dusts, tar, and other foreign materials gradually upward, like escalators, until they can be spit out. Every time a blast of tobacco smoke hits these cilia, however, they slow down, and soon stop moving. As a result, the trapped tars from the tobacco smoke begin seeping into the cells lining the air tubes. Over time, this constant irritation turns some of the cells cancerous. This transformation usually takes many years. But once it begins, the cancer steadily eats its way deeper into the lung. By the time it is discovered, its usually too late. When cigarette smoke is inhaled, the tissue cells of the lungs are exposed to the host of carcinogens contained in the smoke. Carcinogens have the unique potential to damage and change the DNA of cells in the body. The DNA is responsible for functions including how fast the cells reproduce and grow. Once a cell has been exposed to carcinogens for an extended period of time and the DNA has been affected, the cell can become cancerous. A cancerous cell is defined as any cell in the body who’s DNA has been reprogrammed to grow at an accelerated and unstoppable rate. As the affected cells continue to grow, they cause the formation of blood vessels to supply the cells with the needed nutrients to continue growing. These cells grow into masses called tumors. Eventually these tumors grow to such a size that they begin to crowd out other cells in the lungs. The added mass of the tumor makes it difficult to breathe, which decreases the amount of oxygen being transported throughout the body. Eventually the tumor can become so large that the lungs can no longer function. If a small amount of the tumor manages to break off and enter the bloodstream, or lymph system, the cancer can spread to other parts of the body. Here the process continues as the cells make new homes in organ tissues, such as the heart, liver or brain. This eventually causes these organs to no longer function over time as well. If you think you’re safe just because you are not a smoker,  think again, because you’re wrong. Passive smoking, or also known as second hand smoke can also be a risk factor for lung cancer. Breathing in the smoke of others can increase your risk of developing lung cancer. A non-smoker who lives with a smoker has about a 20 percent to 30 percent greater risk of developing lung cancer. Workers who have been exposed to tobacco smoke in the workplace are also more likely to get lung cancer. Secondhand smoke involuntarily inhaled by nonsmokers from other people’s cigarettes is classified by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency as a known human carcinogen, responsible for approximately 3,400 lung cancer deaths and 46,000 heart disease deaths in adult nonsmokers annually in the United States (American Lung Association). Smoking by parents is associated with a wide range of adverse effects in their children as well, including exacerbation of asthma attacks, increased frequency of colds and ear infections, and sudden infant death syndrome. Secondhand smoke causes an estimated 202,000 asthma episodes, 790,000 physician visits for buildup of fluid in the middle ear (or middle ear infection), and 430 sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) cases each year. Nicotine is a very addictive drug, and when it’s inhaled, cigarette smoke reaches the brain faster than drugs that enter the body intravenously. Smokers not only become physically addicted to nicotine; they also connect smoking with many social activities, making smoking an even more difficult habit to break. Quitting smoking often requires multiple attempts. Using counseling or medication alone increases the chance of a quit attempt being successful; the combination of both is even more effective. Perhaps the best motivation for an individual to quit smoking would be the thought of the serious health complications down the road if smoking is continued. If you stop smoking before a cancer develops, your damaged lung tissue gradually starts to repair itself. No matter what your age or how long youve smoked, quitting may lower your risk of lung cancer and help you live longer. There are some people that will try to tell you that the medical establishment is lying to you. They will argue that it’s not proven that cigarette smoking causes lung cancer, that the statistics have been twisted to make the case against cigarette smoking stronger and worse than it actually is. There are a number of things that doctors and researchers don’t yet understand, such as there is no development of lung cancer in those people that can smoke for years, while  others who have never smoked do. There is one thing to keep in mind, risk of developing lung cancer increases due to smoking- this isn’t a claim, it’s a fact. Remember, it’s never too late to put down that cancer stick!

Elderly Physical Activity And Exercise Health And Social Care Essay

Elderly Physical Activity And Exercise Health And Social Care Essay According to Foster (1983), well elderly are people over the age of 65 who live in the community out of an institutional setting who continue their life-long patterns of coping with life and living. 2.2.0 Physical activity and Exercise 2.2.1 Definitions of Physical Activity and Exercise Caspersen, Powell and Christenson (1985) defined physical activity as any bodily movements produced by skeletal muscles that result in energy expenditure whereas exercise was defined as planned, structured, repetitive, and purposive bodily movement done to improve or maintain one or more components of physical fitness. In several studies these two terms are used interchangeably. Melillo et al. (1996) stated that when compared to physical activity, exercise is only a component of the overall concept. According to O Brien Cousins (1998) when gerontologists need to measure amounts of physical movements that the elderly may be doing , they tend to use the term physical activity instead of exercise or sport as the latter two may sound like high-exertion and risky activity. 2.2.2 Perceptions of Physical Activity and Exercise Hutton et al. (2009) studied the view of physical activity in older adults. Some consider the involvement in everyday activities such as household chores, leisure pursuits and gardening sufficient for them to meet their physical requirements. On the other hand, others believed that activity needs would be met if one participates in specific tasks other then daily activities. Lavizzo-Mourey et al. (2001) studied the difference in perception of exercise between the less and the more physically capable group of old adults. The less physically capable group defined exercise as maintaining basic abilities and movement. The more physically capable think that exercise should push physical limits and eventually have a goal, although they did not oppose that ageing increases the challenge in activities of daily living. Wilcox, Oberrecht, Bopp, Kammermann and McElmurray (2005) came to similar conclusions after analysing elderly womens attempt in describing the difference between the physical activity and exercise. Physical activity was viewed as broader than exercise. Walcott- McQuigg and Prohaska (2001) distinguished exercise definition between older adults at different stages of readiness to change, used in the Transtheoretical Stages of Change model by Prochaska et al. (1997). Precontemplators viewed exercise as a form of physical exertion such as performing calisthenics and push ups. Participation in formal programs, walking and home exercises were contemplators perceptions of exercise. A broader definition was given by the action and maintenance group as exercise was defined as housework, dancing, general movement and attending social functions. 2.2.3 Recommendations of Exercise The  American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) and the  American Heart Association (AHA) released exercise guidelines in 2007 which are an update from the 1995 guidelines by ACSM and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The new recommendation of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise for adults over age 65 identified 30 minutes a day, five days per week as the recommended minimum as opposed to previous one that stated accumulation of 30 minutes or more on most, preferably all days of the week (Haskell et al., 2007). A subjective scale that ranges from 1 (resting) and 10 (an all out effort), is used since moderate intensity cannot be defined in absolute terms. Moderate intensity exercise means working hard at about level-six intensity and being able to carry on a conversation during exercise (ACSM AHA, n.d.). 2.2.4 Perceptions of Exercise Recommendation In 2004, Belza et al. found that older adults understood the ACSM and CDC recommendation. In a similar study done by Wilcox et al. (2005) amongst old women, the participants expressed the idea that moderate-intensity is subjective as it depends on the person. Housework and walking were the two most examples given to illustrate the meaning. Others defined moderate intensity by the level of exertion such as sweating, when the heart start pounding and going beyond comfort level. The word accumulate in the recommendation resulted in uncertainty. When asked to give their general opinion on the recommendation, some said that it was good and realistic and others said it was not. In the same study it has been shown that older adults believe that tailoring recommendations to ones age and physical health is more sensible than just using one-size-fits-all recommendation. 2.3.0 Benefits of Exercise 2.3.1 Documented Benefits of Exercise Juarbe, Turok and Perez-Stable (2002) declared that physical inactivity is one of the most important amendable risk factor for many diseases. WHO (2003) stated that physical activity is important in the prevention of non-communicable chronic diseases such as osteoporosis, type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity. The risk of deaths from cardiovascular disease is reduced by moderate levels of physical activity (Bassett et al., 2002, as cited in Belza et al., 2004). Blumenthal et al. (1999) stated that routine physical exercise diminishes mental concerns such as depression and anxiety. Regular exercise is also related to a reduction in the risk of falling (Gregg, Pereira Caspersen, 2000). Cress et al. (2005, as cited by Hardy Grogan, 2009) stated that physical activity helps the elderly to keep up a better quality of life by enabling them to have the opportunity for a more active and independent life. OBrien Cousins (2000, as cited in OBrien Cousins, 2003) explains that elderly see physi cal activity as high risk behaviour, when in actual fact it is chronic lying in bed which decondition the body and increases the risk of health problems. In fact Booth, Bauman and Owen (2002) confirm that the risks associated with a sedentary lifestyle far exceed the risks associated with regular participation in regular physical activity. 2.3.2 Knowledge and Perceptions of the Benefits of Exercise It was found that when elderly lack the confidence in physical activity engagement, that is exercise self efficacy, being knowledgeable about the benefits of exercise will not necessarily result in increased physical activity engagement (Phillips, Schneider Mercer, 2004). Crombie et al. (2004) in their study found out that elderly had high levels of knowledge about the specific health benefits from exercise participation. However, a small number of participants gave the wrong responses or were unsure of the effects. 15% thought that physical activity can lead to long-term hypertension and 13% thought that exercise can weaken bones. 10% did not believe that participation in regular physical activity would not help them to feel better and in remaining independent. Most elderly believed that exercise can help to improve physical fitness, maintain levels of energy, maintain or increase muscle strength and tone, prevent aches and pains, and give them the opportunity to socialise with other people. Wilcox et al. (2005) examined perceptions of exercise benefits and came up with three types namely being weight and appearance, physical health and mental health benefits. Physical health benefits were the most regularly mentioned benefits of exercise in this study. Such examples include heart strengthening, improving arthritis, and decreasing joint stiffness. Some pointed out specific conditions that would benefit from exercise such as diabetes, high blood pressure and cholesterol. Stress reduction, improved alertness, feeling better, feeling good and improved sleep are examples of mental health benefits cited in the study. When asked about the health benefits of exercise in the study of Lavizzo-Mourey et al. (2001), many seniors mentioned weight loss and improvements in the heart and breathing. However, it was found that it was easier for elderly to appreciate or detect increased leg strength than increased cardiac fitness, even though they were interested in increasing aerobic and cardiovascular capacity. Walcott-McQuigg and Prohaska (2001) discovered the difference in discussion of benefits between elderly at different stages of exercise. Precontemplators and contemplators discussed benefits in terms of disease processes, such as it keeps you from having the hardening of arteries, prevents weight gain and helps the circulation. While those who exercised used terms such as keeping alert, energizing, relief of stress, keeps you in shape and prevents you from getting stiff. Leavy and Aberg (2010) found out that the inactive and moderately active elderly did not believe strongly that being active could add to life span or avoid disease, despite not denying potential health benefits of exercise. 2.4.0 Motivators to Exercise Resnick (1996, as cited in Keiba, 2004) defined motivation as the inner urge that moves or prompts a person to actionmotivation comes from within. 2.4.1.0 Personal Motivators 2.4.1.1 Health and Fitness Newson and Kemps (2007) in their study among 222 elderly participants examined the incidence of exercise motivation from fitness, challenge or health factors. Fitness factors such as wanting to stay in shape and physically fit were marked as very frequent motivating factors in 51.3% and 51.6% of participants respectively. 30% of elderly stated that weight loss has never been a motivating factor to exercise, while 24.5% always exercise to lose weight. Cholesterol reduction and weight loss promote healthy behaviours adoption such as healthy eating and exercise in elderly (Greaney, Lees, Greene Clark, 2004). Improving fitness, keep healthy and joint mobility maintenance were the most reported motives to engage in exercise and sports in participants of the study of Kolt, Driver and Giles (2004). 2.4.1.2 Challenge Beljic (2007) stated that competition can be an efficient motivational tool for elderly to exercise as it was common amongst elderly who constantly compared their blood glucose measurements whilst on a summer camp. Other people can be a source of external motivation through competition, cooperation and comparison (Fogg, 2003, as cited in Albaina, 2009). Factors such as competitivity and skills improvement were mostly marked as rare stimulating factors (Newson Kemps, 2007). 2.4.1.3 Psychological Resnick et al. (2002) explained social cognitive theory of Bandura (1997). They stated that forethought regulates human motivation and action. Outcome expectations and self-efficacy expectations are the basis of the behaviour cognitive control. This means that the person has to believe that a personal action will be followed by a certain outcome, and has to believe in his or her capability to perform such course of action. Exercise engagement has been repeatedly found to be predicted by a strong self belief in accomplishing exercise (Phillips et al., 2004). Resnick (2002) identified factors that had been found to increase self efficacy in older adults. Such factors include role modelling, verbal persuasionf and encouragement, education about exercise and reduction in exercise associated unpleasant sensations. Doing an activity the elderly really enjoy, was found to be a motivating factor to exercise (Melillo et al., 1996). Exercise adherence is influenced by physical activity enjoyment as discussed by Hardy and Grogan (2009). 2.4.1.4 Other motivators Another exercise enabler, time availability, emerged from the various studies including that of Scanlon-Mogel and Roberto (2004). 60% of elderly in the study agreed that role changes in later life such as retirement permit more time available for elderly to participate in exercise. 9.1% of elderly in the study of Cohen-Mansfield, Marx and Guralnik (2003) mentioned increased time availability as a motivating factor. Tolma, Lane, Cornman and Uddin, (2003) indicated that some elderly are motivated to exercise because of their perceived exercise benefits such being able to perform simple activities of daily living, keeping busy and prevent boredom. 2.4.2 Social Motivators Keiba (2004) discussed that social support could encourage individuals to complete necessary unappealing activities because we as individuals are social in nature. This is particularly significant in the older adult who is more reluctant and cautious in attempting certain activities due to fear of decreased physical abilities and mental acuity. Berkman (1995, as cited in Resnick et al., 2002), described different types of social support related to exercise including instrumental, informational, emotional and appraisal types. Such examples of support include accompanying an old adult for a walk, sharing information about exercise, calling a friend to check if they have walked or giving verbal encouragement. According to Hardy and Grogan (2009), social support would increase elderly confidence and reassurance and thus enhance elderly self efficacy in exercise. Family as encouragement was one of the most important themes that emerged from the study by Belza et al. (2004). Family assisted elderly participation in exercise in several ways, such as getting them exercise equipment, providing transport to exercise facilities and by encouraging their participation. Grossman and Stewart (2003, as cited in Bunn et al., 2008) agrees with the latter study as they both cited that decreasing the burden on their family by avoiding sickness was an incentive for some elderly to keep physically active. The motivation of some elderly to stay active and maintain a good quality of life arises from the death and weight problems of their loved ones (Hardy and Grogan, 2009). Cohen-Mansfield et al. (2003) found that 14% of participants stated that having someone to exercise with, motivates them to be physically active. Wilcox et al. (2005) supported this finding as they found that elderly physical activity participation increases and becomes more enjoyable when having someone to exercise with. It was reported that elderly discussed the idea of organizing neighbourhood groups to enable increased communication, support, and planning of physical activities. Because of increased social contact and motivation, group exercise encourages some elderly to be physically active according to Lavizzo-Mourey et al. (2001). 31.3% of African American and 27% of European American in the study of Schuler et al. (2006) stated that they exercise as it is something they can do with their friends. Swinburn, Walter, Arroll, Tilyard and Russell (1998) stated that patients consider a physicians exercise prescription important. Pfeiffer, Clay and Conatser (2001) in the evaluation of the former statement, pointed out that the physician believe in the health benefits of exercise since he or she equates exercise with medication. 6.1% of elderly in Nowak study (2006) mentioned physicians recommendation as a motive to exercise. 2.4.3 Environmental Motivators Exercise facility proximity to the elderlys house promotes exercise engagement in 10% of the participants in the study of Chen, Snyder and Krichbaum (2001). Huston, Evenson, Bors and Gizlice, (2003) studied further this enabler among elderly in America and found that performance in some type of leisure-time physical activity is increased by having access to parks, clubs and fitness centres, in the vicinity of their homes or workplace. Bunn, Dickinson, Barnett-Page, Mcinnes and Horton (2008) identified accessible and appealing information about physical and psychological benefits of exercise as facilitators to exercise. Convenient scheduling of exercise programmes which are tailored to needs or lifestyles enable exercise participation. 2.5.0 Barriers of exercise The Oxford Study Dictionary (1994, pg.50) defined Barrier as something that prevents or controls advance, access, or progress. Hardy and Grogan (2009) stated that real or perceived barriers can significantly obstruct exercise participation. 2.5.1.0 Personal Barriers 2.5.1.1 Health In the study of Juarbe et al. (2002), 28.6% of elderly claimed that the maintenance of a regular physical activity program was impeded by their personal health condition. Cohen-Mansfield et al. (2003) reported that the ability to stay physically active can be influenced by a variety of chronic disabling illnesses and a general lack of understanding of the role of physical activity. 53% reported pain or health problems as a limitation to exercise. The elderly had the belief that due to their medical diagnosis they should not and were not allowed to participate in physical activity. 12% were restricted by shortness of breath while 27% were impeded by painful joints (Crombie et al., 2004). The perception of making their pain worse and feeling of tiredness and dizziness restricted physical activity (Belza et al., 2004). 2.5.1.2 Concerns Petersen (2006) argued that for many older people, fear of injury is an impediment to exercise. Elderly may have multiple pathologies and they might be afraid of exacerbating their symptoms such as pain, inducing injury such as a fracture and triggering hypoglycaemia for instance. Overexertion concerns were brought up in the study of Lavizzo-Mourey et al. (2001) such as worrying of death when the heart starts beating too fast. Fear of exercise-associated falls were cited as obstacles to exercise ( Lavizzo-Mourey et al., 2001) as they lead to a decline in confidence, which in turn discourage exercise participation (Bruce, Devine Prince, 2002, as cited in Bunn et al., 2008). Unwillingness to go out at night due to fear of being out alone hinders exercise participation (Crombie et al., 2004; Hardy and Grogan, 2009). 2.5.1.3 Perceptions Wilcox et al. (2005) discussed elderly perception of being too old to exercise and their concern of doing more harm than good. 34.9% of elderly participants in the study of Nowak (2006) and 14.3% in the study of Chen et al. (2001) voiced their idea that their inappropriate age is occluding them from exercising. Zunft et al. (1999, as cited in Leavy Aberg, 2010) in their examination of perceived barriers of the older European adults, found that being too old or not being the sporty type were major barriers in physical activity participation. Relating physical activity to sport and the unawareness of the moderate-intensity activity importance on healthy aging, could rationalize these perceptions, argues Leavy and Aberg (2010). Crombie et al. (2004) pointed out the contribution of lack of positive beliefs of physical activity to sedentary behaviour. Some elderly women voiced their ideas that housework serves as a sufficient exercise and eliminate outside exercise activities requirement (Walcott-McQuigg Prohaska, 2001). 2.5.1.4 Psychological Nowak (2006) reported that 7.8% of elderly women cited self-consciousness as their reason for physical passivity. Lavizzo-Mourey et al. (2001) in their study assumed that participation in group exercise might be influenced by embarrassment. As reported in the study, an elderly person was concerned that when bending over, the person behind would see the whole rear exposed. Hutton et al. (2009) in their findings of exercise barriers reported feeling of self-consciousness when exercising in the presence of younger people with gym equipment. Dissatisfaction of the body appearance and body mass index, would affect the old adults body esteem and this would influence the level of physical activity (McLaren, Hardy Kuh, 2003, as cited in Hardy Grogan, 2009). McLaren et al. (2003) attributed this negative influence to the effect of body dissatisfaction on the persons sense of well-being and quality of life. Lack of enjoyment is another known barrier to exercise (Wilcox et al., 2005), in fact it impedes 8.3% of elderly participants in the study of Cohen-Mansfield et al. (2003). Laziness, lack of motivation and willpower were identified as barriers to exercise (Walcott-McQuigg Prohaska, 2001; Wilcox et al., 2005). Dergance et al. (2003) in their study about the difference of barriers to leisure time physical activity across cultures found that 19% of Mexican Americans elderly and 45.9% of European Americans elderly stated lack of interest as a barrier. 11.4 % of elderly in the study of Chen et al. (2001) have never considered practicing Tai Chi as they were not interested. 2.5.1.5 Other barriers O Brein Cousins (2003) argues that since older people pack their schedules with voluntary work, care giving roles and probably bingo and other passive games, they genuinely feel they have no spare time left to engage in physical activity. Similarly Schuler al. (2006) reported that among their study population, 12.2% of African American and 10.1% of European American cited lack of time as an exercise barrier. Twenty nine percent of participants in Cheng et al. study in 2007 referred to their difficulty in memorising exercise styles as a barrier to exercise. 22.9% of elderly do not consider practicing Tai Chi as they think they will forget its complicated movements (Chen et al., 2001). The necessity of a walking aid is an impediment to exercise in the elderly (Lavizzo-Mourey et al., 2001). 2.5.2 Social Barriers Petersen (2006), mentioned that physicians occasionally hinder lifestyle changes unintentionally. Patients are given the impression that exercise is not important as physicians do not inquire much about exercise. Rogers et al., (2006) reported low levels of physician counselling on physical activity. Only 34% of a survey participants cited being advised on exercise at their last doctor visit (Wee, McCarthy, Davis Phillips, 1999, as cited in Resnick et al., 2002). ONeil and Reid (1991, as cited in Melillo et al., 1996) found that 16% of elderly did not exercise as their doctor advised them to be careful and not to over-exert themselves. Belza et al., (2004) reported that elderly mentioned family and work obligations which interfere with physical activity routine maintenance. Walcott-McQuigg and Prohaska (2001) indicated that family responsibilities such as caring for grandchildren and older or ailing relatives are restricting the time available for elderly to be physically active. It was also stated that repeated family advice and encouragement can become irritating to the elderly person. Lack of social support from spouse, family and lack of company obstruct exercise participation (Lees, Clark, Nigg Newman, 2005; Wilcox et al., 2005). Ball, Bauman, Leslie and Owen (2001, as cited in Salvador, Florindo, Reis Costa, 2009) stated that walking during leisure time is 31% less likely in individuals who do not have anyone to exercise with. Antikainen et al., (2010) pointed out the elderly family members concern of overexertion and thus resulting in little encouragement to exercise. Negative comments directed to elderly who attempted to exercise discourage physical activity participation (Jancey, Clarke, Howat, Maycock, Lee, 2009). Lavizzo-Mourey et al. (2001) emphasize this barrier as a group of children was a source of intimidation and hazard for certain elderly whilst doing exercise. 2.5.3 Cultural Barriers A barrier that emerged in the study of Wilcox et al. (2005) was that in the past, exercise was not something discussed and stressed on, and they did not have exercise role models. In fact one elderly woman cited that she cannot visualize her mother doing exercise or even speaking about it. Similarly in the study of Nowak (2006) it was found that the most barriers associated with physical inactivity were cultural, originating from the lack of cultivated customs of a physically active lifestyle in the society. Physical labour of past African American jobs led to their perception that additional exercise was not necessary (Walcott-McQuigg Prohaska, 2001). 2.5.4 Environmental Barriers Difficulty, element of competition and lack of attraction of exercise classes were some of the elderly views that hindered their participation in a class, according to Hutton et al. (2009). Uneasiness was a mentioned concern in a group exercise environment and this pressure is owed to the inability of keeping pace with the class. Wilcox et al. (2005) supported this report by his findings in which elderly discussed the lack of age-appropriate classes and expenses. In the study of Cohen-Mansfield et al. (2003), 10.9% of participants reported bad weather as an obstacle to exercise. Several issues related to rurality such as transport unavailability, lack of pavements, lack of safety and facilities were considered as barriers in Wilcox et al. study in 2005. Pfeiffer et al. (2001) supported these findings by their study and attributed the unavailability of sidewalks with the fear of falling and hence makes walking an unappealing exercise. In the study of Lavizzo-Mourey et al. (2001), unevenness of steps and pavements was cited as another barrier. 16 % of elderly in Cheng et al. study (2007) cited limited public space available to do exercise. Limitation and inappropriateness of space to exercise in the house was found to be a barrier in the study done by Juarbe et al. (2002), usually due to the fact that they live in a confined space with their relatives, shared residential homes or in an apartment. Hardy and Grogan (2009) in their investigation o f the factors influencing engagement in physical activity concluded that the lack of information about exercise and the elderly is limiting their participation. 2.6.0 Variables affecting Impeding and Motivating Factors OBrien Cousins (1995, as cited in OBrien Cousins, 2003) has shown that the elderly involvement in exercise could be significantly affected by the individuals life circumstances such as the age, gender, education and health. 2.6.1 Age Bylina et al. (2006) cited National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion when stating that 28-34% of adults between 65-74 years old and 35-44% of adults aged 75 or older are inactive, not exercising, and engaging in no leisure-time physical activities. Newson and Kemps (2007) compared those older than 75 years to their younger counterparts. They were more likely to exercise to maintain an active lifestyle and medical problems were more likely to prevent them from engaging in exercise. Kolt et al. (2004) found that involvement factors such as getting out of the house and having something to do, and medical motivators were rated more highly by those 75 + than the middle old. The middle-age group reported fitness reasons to be more important than the old-age group. The high ratings of involvement factors may be explained by McMurdo (2000) when stating that loneliness and isolation faced by older adults may be countered by the experience provided by physical activity and exercise. 2.6.2 Level of Education Walsh, Rogot, Pressman, Cauley and Browner (2001) found out that medium or high intensity activities were activities that elderly women with greater than a high school education, were more likely to engage in. Similarly Cheng et al. (2007) reported that exercise participation was lower in less educated people . Highly educated elderly were found to be highly motivated to exercise by social and fitness motivators (Kolt et al, 2004) and an organized exercise program (Cohen-Mansfield, 2003). Involvement reasons were highly rated by those who did not complete high level education (Kolt et al, 2004). 2.6.3 Level of Exercise Time constraints and physical weakness were identified as barriers by the exercisers, while fear of falling and the negative consequences were mentioned by the non-exercisers. Lack of social support is a significant barrier for both. Having a buddy-system in a group exercise would encourage non exercisers to exercise (Lees et al., 2005). Fitness and Challenge factors were reported as frequent motivators by the high-level exercisers when compared to low-level exercisers. Concern, medical factors and lack of facilities and knowledge were rated as frequent barriers to low-level exercisers (Newson Kemps, 2007). Health problems were more likely to be identified as barriers by the precontemplators, although it was a common report among the other groups. Lack of motivation and laziness were identified as barriers by the elderly at every stage of readiness to change (Walcott-McQuigg Prohaska, 2001). Social interaction was an opportunity which motivated the less active participants in parti cular, to take part in exercise (Leavy and Aberg, 2010). 2.6.4 Marital and Habitual Status Cohen-Mansfield et al. (2003) found that having more time available would motivate a lot of married elderly to exercise more frequently. Additionally, it was discussed that since the unmarried would probably be more in need of social interactions, they showed more of an interest in finding someone to accompany them in exercise. It was further discussed that the more socially isolated persons may benefit from social forms of exercise as group exercise would motivate them to exercise. 2.7 Conclusion Elderly persons have different perception of exercise definition, recommendation and benefits. A vast range of motivators and barriers were found to encourage or impede elderly participation in exercise. The perceptions, barriers and motivators were also found to differ with different elderly background characteristics and level of exercise.